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Contents

List of Figures

1 Introduction

1.1 Problem motivation
1.2 Virtual manipulation
1.3 Passive haptic issues
1.4 Humans have two hands
1.5 Thesis statement
1.6 Contributions and overview
1.6.1 Interdisciplinary approach
1.6.2 Revisiting haptic issues
1.6.3 Application to neurosurgical visualization
1.6.4 Two-handed virtual manipulation techniques
1.6.5 Basic knowledge about two hands
1.6.6 Two hands are not just faster than one hand
1.7 Organization

2 Related Work

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Two-dimensional approaches for 3D manipulation
2.2.1 3D Widgets
2.2.2 SKETCH
2.3 Using the hand itself for input
2.3.1 Gloves and Gesture for virtual manipulation
2.3.1.1 The Virtual Wind Tunnel
2.3.2 Electric field sensing
2.3.3 VIDEODESK and VIDEOPLACE
2.3.4 Hands and voice: multimodal input
2.3.4.1 Hauptmann's behavioral study
2.3.4.2 Put-That-There
2.3.4.3 Two hands and voice
2.4 One-handed spatial interaction techniques
2.4.1 Schmandt's stereoscopic workspace
2.4.2 Ware's investigations of the "bat"
2.4.3 High Resolution Virtual Reality
2.4.4 JDCAD
2.4.5 Butterworth's 3DM (Three-Dimensional Modeler)
2.5 Two-handed spatial interaction techniques
2.5.1 3Draw
2.5.2 Interactive Worlds-in-Miniature
2.5.3 The Virtual Workbench
2.5.4 The Reactive Workbench and ImmersaDesk
2.5.5 Other notable systems
2.6 Theory and experiments for two hands
2.6.1 Guiard's Kinematic Chain Model
2.6.2 Formal experiments
2.6.2.1 Buxton and Myers experiments
2.6.2.2 Kabbash experiments
2.6.2.3 Leganchuk's area selection experiment
2.7 Summary

3 System Description

3.1 Overview
3.2 The application domain: neurosurgery and neurosurgeons
3.2.1 Traditional practice
3.2.2 Computer-assisted surgery
3.2.3 Some system requirements
3.3 System design philosophy
3.4 Real-time interaction
3.5 Props for neurosurgical visualization
3.5.1 Viewing patient data with a head prop
3.5.2 Slicing the patient data with a cutting-plane prop
3.5.3 Indicating surgical paths with a trajectory prop
3.6 Two-handed interaction
3.6.1 Two-handed input and the task hierarchy
3.6.2 The natural central object
3.7 Interactive volume cross-sectioning
3.7.1 Frames-of-reference for the cross section display
3.7.2 Texture mapping hardware
3.7.3 Disappearing object problem
3.8 Clutching mechanisms
3.9 Touchscreens for hybrid 2D and 3D input
3.9.1 Previous techniques for hybrid input
3.9.2 Description of the touchscreen interface
3.9.3 Limitations and proposed enhancements
3.10 Informal evaluation: notes on user acceptance
3.10.1 User observations

4 Design Issues in Spatial Input

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Understanding 3D space vs. experiencing 3D space
4.3 Spatial references
4.4 Relative gesture vs. absolute gesture
4.5 Two-handed interaction
4.5.1 Working volume of the user's hands
4.6 Multisensory feedback
4.7 Physical constraints and affordances
4.8 Head tracking techniques
4.9 Related versus independent input dimensions
4.10 Extraneous degrees of freedom
4.11 Coarse versus precise positioning tasks
4.12 Control metaphors
4.13 Issues in dynamic target acquisition
4.13.1 Use of transparency to facilitate target acquisition
4.13.2 Ray casting versus direct positioning in 3D
4.13.3 Cone casting versus ray casting
4.14 Clutching mechanisms
4.14.1 Recalibration mechanisms
4.15 Importance of ergonomic details in spatial interfaces
4.16 Discussion

5 Research Methodology

5.1 Purpose
5.2 Evaluation with experts versus non-experts
5.3 Approaches for evaluation
5.4 Principled experimental comparisons
5.5 The process of experimental evaluation
5.6 Data analysis
5.7 Conclusion

6 Usability Analysis of 3D Rotation Techniques

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview
6.3 Interaction techniques
6.4 Hypotheses
6.5 The Experiment
6.5.1 Task
6.5.2 Experimental design
6.5.3 Test users
6.6 Results
6.6.1 Statistical analysis
6.6.2 Separate analysis for males and females
6.6.3 Between-subjects analysis
6.7 Qualitative results
6.7.1 2D techniques: the Arcball and Virtual Sphere
6.7.2 Comparison of Arcball and Virtual Sphere
6.7.3 3D Ball
6.8 Tracker
6.9 Discussion
6.10 Conclusion

7 Issues in Bimanual Coordination

7.1 Introduction and goals for the studies
7.2 Experiment 1: Qualitative analysis of handwriting and sketching
7.2.1 Handwriting
7.2.2 Drawing and sketching
7.2.3 Summary of handwriting and sketching observations
7.3 Experiment 2: Cooperative bimanual action
7.3.1 Overview
7.3.2 Introduction
7.4 Related work on bimanual action
7.5 The Experiment
7.5.1 Task
7.6 Experimental hypotheses
7.6.1 Subjects
7.6.2 Experimental procedure and design
7.6.3 Details of the experimental task and configuration
7.6.4 Limitations of the experiment
7.7 Results
7.7.1 Qualitative analysis
7.7.2 Detailed statistical analysis
7.7.3 Possibility of Order or Sex biases
7.8 Discussion

8 The Bimanual Frame-of-Reference

8.1 Overview
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Hypotheses
8.4 Cognitive aspects of performance
8.5 The Experiment
8.5.1 Subjects
8.5.2 Task
8.5.3 Experimental conditions
8.5.4 Experimental procedure and design
8.6 Results
8.7 Qualitative results
8.8 Discussion
8.9 Conclusion and future work

9 Conclusions

9.1 Approach
9.2 Contributions
9.3 High level conclusions
9.4 Future Work
9.5 Epilogue

Bibliography


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Copyright © 1996, Ken Hinckley. All rights reserved.